Further Guidance for Transport Agencies - Chapter Four: Making Progress Towards the Transport Objectives

PART B: FURTHER GUIDANCE FOR TRANSPORT AGENCIES

The strategic approach required to deliver each transport objective: this includes the key components from Part A and the other areas of activity that will continue to be required to deliver the transport vision.

Short-term supporting actions: mainly led by government, to improve knowledge and develop more informed strategic approaches to delivering the targets.

 

CHAPTER FOUR: MAKING PROGRESS TOWARDS THE TRANSPORT OBJECTIVES

Progress will need to be made against all the transport objectives. This Chapter sets out for each objective: relevant targets³⁷, the key issues and the government’s strategic approach to addressing those issues. Reference is also made to the key components in Chapter 3 and other areas of transport activity.

Appendix E summarises how the key components contribute to the transport objectives.

4.1 Ensuring environmental sustainability – greenhouse gas emissions

TARGETS TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS 

• Halve per capita greenhouse gas emissions from domestic transport by 2040³⁸
• Increase coastal shipping’s share of inter-regional freight to 30 percent of tonne-kilometres by 2040
• Increase rail’s share of freight to 25 percent of tonne-kilometres by 2040
• Become one of the first countries in the world to widely use electric vehicles
• Reduce the kilometres travelled by single occupancy vehicles, in major urban areas on weekdays, by ten percent per capita by 2015 compared to 2007
• Reduce the rated CO₂ emissions per kilometre of combined average new and used vehicles entering the light vehicle fleet to 170 grams CO₂ per kilometre by 2015, with a corresponding reduction in average fuel used per kilometre
• Increase use of public transport to seven percent of all trips by 2040 (ie from 111 million boardings in 2006/7 to more than 525 million boardings in 2040)
• Increase walking, cycling and other active modes to 30 percent of total trips in urban areas by 2040

4.1.1 INTRODUCTION

Around the world, there is a growing sense of urgency over the need to address the threat of climate change. For New Zealand there are four main climate change challenges, as set out in the New Zealand Energy Strategy (NZES). These are to:

• control and reduce greenhouse gas emissions
• support international initiatives for multilateral action to reduce emissions, principally by maintaining momentum on the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and ensuring this momentum is carried through after 2012
• prepare for, and adapt to, the impacts of climate change on transport systems by responding to the risks and taking advantage of the opportunities they present
• overcome the challenges above at the lowest achievable long-term cost.

This section sets out how the transport sector can reduce its domestic greenhouse gas emissions. Section 4.4 includes information about transport resilience and considers the impacts of climate change on the transport system.

If New Zealand does not make changes to the way freight moves and people travel, energy use within the transport sector is expected to increase by approximately 26 percent from 2007 levels to 2030³⁹ – with three-quarters of that growth coming from road transport. Emissions from transport would increase at a similar rate because of the dominance of fossil fuels. The dangers of climate change make this path unsustainable.

The key challenge is to reduce emissions while ensuring that transport systems continue to support a strong, competitive economy and high quality of life.

4.1.2 STRATEGIC APPROACH

The government’s approach to reducing transport emissions, in addition to emissions trading, builds on the low-carbon scenario in the NZES and focuses on:
• managing demand for travel
• shifting to lower emission transport
• improving the fuel efficiency of vehicle fleets and transport networks
• developing and adopting future fuels.

MANAGING DEMAND FOR TRAVEL

The government’s approach to travel demand management is set out in section 3.1. Key components that will contribute to managing travel demand include integrated planning and considering options for charging. In addition, the government’s Digital Strategy and its support for broadband will reduce pressure on transport services by promoting teleconferencing, telecommuting⁴⁰ and other forms of long-range communication.

SHIFTING TO LOWER EMISSION TRANSPORT

European Union experience suggests that coastal shipping and rail have lower greenhouse gas emissions per tonne-kilometre of freight moved than road transport⁴¹. Moving an increasing proportion of freight by sea and rail will reduce emissions in the future.

The government will support industry in the use of freight modes that produce fewer emissions through providing information, targeted investment, possible support for intermodal terminals and funding for coastal shipping initiatives. The increased use of public transport, walking and cycling will also reduce domestic emissions. Investing in critical infrastructure (including coastal shipping and rail) and public transport, walking and cycling are key components described in Chapter 3.

IMPROVING THE FUEL EFFICIENCY OF VEHICLE FLEETS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS

Improvements to vehicle technology and changes to the composition of New Zealand’s fleets can improve the fuel efficiency of transport. The choices made by drivers about how their vehicles are maintained and driven also influence transport emissions.

The government has adopted a target to improve the fuel economy of the New Zealand light fleet through improvements in fuel and engine technologies. It is also developing policies and actions to achieve changes in consumer choices. In addition, there may be opportunities to accelerate the removal of high emission vehicles from the New Zealand fleet. The government will continue to raise awareness of how the way vehicles are driven and maintained will affect fuel efficiency and cost. Using new technologies and fuels is a key component in Chapter 3.

Reduced carbon emissions can also be achieved through improved network efficiency. Traffic management, improved freight productivity and other measures that do this are described under the ‘Making best use of existing networks and infrastructure’ key component within Chapter 3.

The aviation sector has taken a proactive approach to improving the efficiency of aircraft, driven in part by the need to reduce fuel costs. The government endorses the sector’s initiatives around the use of improved engines, airframes, biofuels and other energy sources. In addition, it also supports initiatives to improve air traffic management and airport procedures, maximise operational efficiency and minimise aircraft weight.

DEVELOPING AND ADOPTING FUTURE FUELS

The greater use of alternative fuels and electric vehicles will play a significant role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transport, as described in the ’Using new technology and fuels’ key component in Chapter 3. The government has established an expert group to consider the issues involved. The following are the main alternatives:

BIOFUELS

Biofuels can be used to run conventional motor vehicles primarily as blends with petrol and diesel. Bioethanol and biodiesel are the two most commonly used transport biofuels. When produced from sustainable biomass sources, biofuels can make a contribution to reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transport. However, concerns have been expressed globally about the use of biofuels produced unsustainably (eg by displacing food crops) and governments internationally are seeking ways to address this issue.

The government has introduced legislation to establish a biofuels sales obligation. The obligation will introduce biofuels into the New Zealand fuels market at a low level and progressively increase that level over several years.

The potential for markedly increasing the use of biofuels, particularly bioethanol, is dependent on the composition and turnover of the vehicle fleet, as well as the availability of sustainable produced biofuels. For example, the compatibility of light vehicles with 10 percent blends of bioethanol is uncertain for the New Zealand fleet, in particular for used vehicles imported from Japan, which are generally less compatible with biofuels. By 2020 however, 75 percent of the light vehicle fleet is expected to be capable of operating on a 10 percent bioethanol blend⁴². The import of ‘flex-fuel’ vehicles that can run on very high level biofuel blends (eg 85 percent blends), but cost little or no more than existing vehicles, could enable a more rapid uptake of biofuels.

Developments in technology that produces biofuels promise greater benefits and the ability to use sources of biomass that do not compete with food production. The timeline for commercialisation of these technologies, commonly called ‘second generation’ biofuels, is uncertain but expected before 2020.

ELECTRIC POWERED VEHICLES

The government has made the decision that New Zealand should be one of the first countries to widely use electric vehicles in its fleet. Conventional hybrid electric vehicles are already available and several major vehicle manufacturers are actively working on commercialising both plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles. These are expected to become available in small numbers before 2012.

Electric vehicles are a good fit for New Zealand, given the high proportion of renewable electricity generation⁴³ and they have the potential to make a significant contribution to reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transport. Provided that electric vehicles are charged off-peak, the additional electricity demand they require is expected to fall within the capacity of the grid.

HYDROGEN POWERED VEHICLES

Hydrogen can be used as a transport fuel in modified internal combustion engines or fuel cells that power electric motors. As the only by-product of hydrogen combustion is water, its use can also contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. To achieve these reductions, hydrogen needs to be produced from either renewable resources or from fossil fuels, provided that the carbon released during the production process is captured and stored.

The other major benefit of hydrogen technology is that it can offer comparable range and performance to the internal combustion engines of today. However, the development of the infrastructure needed to distribute and store hydrogen is expected to take decades. Further research is also needed to ensure safe, low-cost, light-weight and low-volume hydrogen storage technologies become available. Some manufacturers believe that a small number of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles may be available within a decade.

OTHER FUELS

Researchers and motor vehicle manufacturers are developing other technologies to power motor vehicles that produce lower or no greenhouse gas emissions – for example, those that use compressed air, compressed natural gas and liquid petroleum gas. The government will keep abreast of these developments.

4.1.3 PATHWAY TO HALVING EMISSIONS FROM DOMESTIC TRANSPORT BY 2040

An implementation pathway has been identified below for reducing, by half, New Zealand’s per capita emissions from domestic transport by 2040, relative to 2007 levels. This reflects current understanding of the likelihood of technological advances and is expressed in carbon dioxide-equivalent (CO₂-e)⁴⁴ savings. The target equates to a reduction of 60 percent in predicted 2040 levels of per capita emissions⁴⁵. Without action, emissions per capita are likely to increase in the future (ie total emissions are likely to increase faster than the population).

The implementation pathway adopts an interim milestone of a 23 percent reduction in per capita emissions by 2040. The diagrams below illustrate the contributions that are expected from different areas of activity to meet the 23 percent milestone by 2020 and 60 percent target by 2040 respectively.  

MILESTONE FOR 2020

By 2020, New Zealand could achieve an approximate 23 percent reduction in per capita CO₂-e emissions from transport. Just over half of this reduction is expected to come from changes in the light vehicle fleet, as well as an increase in walking, cycling and the use of public transport. The anticipated change in composition of the light vehicle fleet includes a reduction in engine size and the increasing adoption of diesel engines and biofuels. The expected rate for adopting diesel is in line with overseas trends.

The rest of the CO₂-e reduction would come from heavy vehicles, including a shift in moving freight from road to rail and sea, increases in the fuel efficiency of road freight operations and the use of biodiesel.

TARGET FOR 2040⁴⁶

As technology and alternative fuels develop and become commercially viable, they will play a more prominent role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transport. In 2040, it is envisaged that biofuels will be used throughout the light and heavy vehicle fleets, reducing per capita CO₂-e emissions from transport by approximately 11 percent. The composition of the light fleet is expected to be a third diesel, a third petrol and a third electric or hydrogen. This change in composition will reduce CO₂-e emissions from transport by about 26 percent per capita.

Achieving the freight mode share targets for rail and coastal shipping, and vehicle and operator efficiency improvements, will result in a 16 percent reduction per capita in CO₂-e emissions from transport. Achieving the public transport, walking and cycling mode share targets, together with other travel demand measures (such as integrated planning), will contribute to a six percent reduction per capita in CO₂-e emissions from transport.

While manufacturers are reporting progress in some of the key technological areas necessary for this pathway to be a reality, it will take many years for those technologies to achieve mass market production and penetration. Although the rate of development is still uncertain, it is likely that by 2020 the timeframe for the uptake of new technology vehicles and biofuels will be clear, enabling the pathway to be further refined in the future.

4.2 Ensuring environmental sustainability – resource use and local environmental effects

TARGET TO REDUCE RESOURCE USE AND LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

Increase the area of Crown transport land covered with indigenous vegetation.

4.2.1 INTRODUCTION

Transport can potentially affect the environment⁴⁷ in a number of ways other than through greenhouse gas emissions. These include:

• use of non-renewable resources
• waste
• water-borne pollution, including maritime oil spillage
• land contamination
• flooding, stormwater erosion and water conservation
• loss of habitat/biodiversity
• risks to biosecurity
• impacts on landscape and the character of urban areas
• damage to sites of cultural, archaeological or spiritual importance
• light pollution.

One of the key environmental issues relating to transport is its use of non-renewable resources, in particular fossil fuels. The use of finite fossil fuels would be a major issue even if greenhouse gas emissions were not a concern. It is essential to conserve supplies by managing travel demand and moving to alternative fuels. Large volumes of other non-renewable resources including bitumen, concrete, steel and aggregate are needed for the construction and maintenance of transport projects.

There is also a significant issue with the waste that arises from transport activity, including scrapped vehicles, tyres and oils. There is scope for the recycling of some materials, such as vehicle parts, but the level of recycling is currently low and large amounts of waste go to landfill.

The local environmental effects of construction projects are generally managed under the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA), through the process of obtaining designations and resource consents. Other provisions, such as the Treaty of Waitangi and the Historic Places Act 1993, are also important.

Other environmental effects arise from the operation of the transport system, primarily from moving vehicles and are not therefore covered directly by the RMA. This includes pollution to water, both from routine operations (eg stormwater run-off from roads) and as a result of accidental spillage of fuels and other harmful materials. Oil spillages in the marine environment are a particular concern.

4.2.2 STRATEGIC APPROACH

Although the RMA is the main mechanism for managing the local environmental effects of transport projects, there is a need to develop clearer guidance to assist in RMA processes. The Ministerial Advisory Group report on the costs of road construction⁴⁸ advised that one of the reasons for cost escalation in roading projects was the inclusion of additional measures to reduce environmental impacts at a late stage in the development process. It is therefore essential that agreement about design and appropriate mitigation is achieved at the earliest possible stage in the process. Furthermore it is important that, when consent conditions are applied, they are complied with and monitored over time. Guidance is also required on managing the effects of transport operations that are not encompassed by the RMA, such as the scrapping of vehicles and the promotion of recycling.

A national framework for managing the environmental effects of transport would help to provide this guidance, by:

• developing improved baseline and trend data on each issue
• evaluating the general scale of impact on the environment and identifying specific areas or issues of concern
• developing consensus-based good practice industry guidelines (eg through New Zealand Standards)
• encouraging adoption of these guidelines
• where appropriate, developing National Environmental Standards

It will not be possible to move forward on all environmental issues at the same pace, given the resources that are likely to be available. A staged and prioritised approach to developing such a framework will be required. There is much good work to build on – for example, Transit New Zealand established a framework for managing the environmental effects of State highways in its Environmental Plan. There is also considerable work underway in the areas of urban design (through successive New Zealand Urban Design Protocol action plans) and stormwater treatment (with draft guidelines prepared by Transit New Zealand). These are likely to be early priorities. There are also opportunities to proactively enhance the environment, for example by planting indigenous vegetation on roadside verges.

4.3 Assisting economic development

TARGETS TO ASSIST ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

• For identified critical routes:
  • improve reliability of journey times 
  • reduce average journey times.
• Increase coastal shipping’s share of inter-regional freight to 30 percent of tonne-kilometres.
• Increase rail’s share of freight to 25 percent of tonne-kilometres.
• Increase use of public transport to seven percent of all trips by 2040 (ie from 111 million boardings in 2006/7 to more than 525 million boardings in 2040).
• Increase walking, cycling and other active modes to 30 percent of total trips in urban areas by 2040.
• Reduce the kilometres travelled by single occupancy vehicles, in major urban areas on weekdays, by
  ten percent per capita by 2015 compared to 2007.

4.3.1 INTRODUCTION

New Zealand needs a transport system that supports and assists long-term economic growth, and the more productive use of resources. Businesses need to be able to transport goods and services to domestic and international markets efficiently. People also need to be able to travel easily for work.

Recent years have seen a rapid increase in demand for transport – as New Zealand becomes more affluent, more people and goods are on the move with the freight task expected to more than double by 2040. This has significant implications for the economy, in particular because of the effects of congestion on the efficiency of supply chains, and because road freight itself contributes to congestion and increases the maintenance costs of roads. The government has adopted targets for increasing the proportion of freight that is moved by sea and rail.

The table below shows how the freight task will have grown by 2040⁴⁹, and how much additional freight each mode will need to move as a consequence of that growth and the targets for shifting freight to other modes.  

TABLE 4: INCREASE IN FREIGHT MOVED, IN TONNE-KILOMETRES, BY EACH FREIGHT MODE IN 2040

SECTOR	FREIGHT TO BE MOVED IN 2040
Total freight sector	2.2 times more freight to be moved than now
Road sector	will need to move 1.6 times more freight than  now
Rail sector	will need to move 2.9 times more freight than  now
Coastal shipping sector	will need to move 3.7 times more freight than  now

 

The ability of the transport system to support New Zealand’s long-term economic growth is affected by a range of other issues including:

Funding – there is potentially a funding gap between the transport infrastructure that is desirable to support economic development and the ability of existing funding mechanisms to deliver the revenue necessary to develop that infrastructure.

Changes to freight distribution networks – global shipping is rationalising, with moves to larger ships and the likely development of hub ports that will impact significantly on freight transportation patterns.

Tourism and New Zealand’s export reputation –New Zealand trades on its ‘clean and green’ image in export and tourism markets. With growing international concern over climate change, it is important that all parts of the New Zealand economy respond appropriately.

Access to international markets – New Zealand has liberalised air service agreements with most key destinations, but further agreements are needed with major markets such as the European Union, China and Japan.

Skills shortages within the transport sector – there is a growing shortage of skilled people in the road, maritime, rail and aviation sectors, including public transport.

Economic development is a priority for the government and transport is generally recognised as being one of the principal factors in supporting economic growth and productivity. The relationship between transport and the economy, however, is complex. Work will be undertaken to improve the understanding of this relationship. A National Freight Study is currently underway to provide baseline information on existing and future freight movements. This research will enable the government to develop a strategic, multi-modal approach to freight and make more informed decisions in the future on how and where to invest in the transport system.

4.3.2 STRATEGIC APPROACH

The following initiatives will be progressed to improve transport’s contribution to economic development in New Zealand:

• improving efficiency of supply chains and ensuring that critical transport corridors and infrastructure support the movement of goods, services and people
• attracting and retaining a highly skilled transport workforce
• meeting Auckland’s transport infrastructure and service needs to support Auckland becoming a world-class city
• supporting tourism and export industries.

IMPROVING SUPPLY CHAIN EFFICIENCY

An efficient freight system is particularly important for New Zealand’s small, open economy which is distant from world markets. Primary production (including agriculture, horticulture and forestry) is one of New Zealand’s biggest sectors, contributing to more than 65 percent of total exports⁵⁰. The sector depends on the efficient and cost-effective movement of freight to and from farm, horticultural and forest properties. Most primary products, particularly logs, have a low value-to-weight ratio meaning that freight costs can have a significant effect on net returns. Transport costs are also an important issue for other areas of production and manufacturing.

Improving the efficiency of supply chains and competitiveness is a key component in supporting economic development (particularly for those businesses that compete internationally in export markets). This will be achieved by a combination of the following:

• Improving reliability of journey times – where journey times are affected by road congestion, measures will include travel demand management, traffic management, effective traveller information systems (that provide real-time information on traffic congestion, incidents and road works) and selective investment in road capacity. Although congestion is primarily an issue for road transport, it can affect rail and sea freight and is a particular concern near sea ports and airports.
• Reducing average journey times – through the measures to address congestion set out above.
• Promoting productivity increases within the freight sector – through support for industry-led initiatives such as the introduction of fleet and logistics management systems, and consideration of possible changes to weight limits on particular roads.

The strong focus for improving reliability and journey times will be on economically important routes – road, rail, sea and air⁵¹. The government’s approach to investing in critical infrastructure, travel demand management and traffic management is set out in Chapter 3.

An important immediate priority for action is to identify economically important (and other critical) routes in collaboration with local government and other stakeholders. When doing so, it will be essential to look at freight distribution networks from a multi-modal perspective, given the freight targets in this Strategy. An important priority will then be to achieve improved facilities for transfer between modes.

The government is also looking to improve the operational efficiency of New Zealand’s freight movements through the development of a controlled permit system that allows heavier and larger vehicles on selected routes.

ATTRACTING AND RETAINING A HIGHLY SKILLED TRANSPORT WORKFORCE
 
The transport sector requires a suitably trained and skilled workforce, and there is a growing shortage of such people in the road, maritime, rail and aviation sectors (including public transport). The stakeholder engagement process on the Sustainable Transport discussion paper identified those shortages as a significant problem facing the sector. The situation in New Zealand mirrors that in Australia and other competing nations, and the loss of trained staff to other countries is a contributing factor.

Future demographic changes in New Zealand may further exacerbate the problem. In the medium to long term, this issue represents a significant threat to the efficiency of the transport sector and the extent to which it can support economic development and other transport objectives.

The government has already signalled, through Sea Change, that it will work with the shipping industry to address workforce issues. Similarly, current initiatives within the road, rail and aviation sectors to improve skills in the existing workforce and attract new people into the industry need to be stepped up. This will require a focus on increasing capability within the industry, and within central and local government (including policy capability).

AUCKLAND AS A WORLD-CLASS CITY

Developing Auckland into a world-class city is a major component of the government’s plan for economic transformation. Auckland is home to a third of New Zealand’s population and responsible for around a third of economic activity. About 73 percent of international visitors arrive and leave New Zealand via Auckland.

Auckland’s economic potential is constrained by congestion, which is estimated to cost the economy around $750⁵² to $900⁵³ million per annum. There has been significant investment in the strategic highway network to help address this issue in recent years, but on its own this is unlikely to solve the problem. Many other large international cities have invested in metro systems, and other high quality public transport, to deal efficiently with high levels of travel demand. The government and the Auckland region have invested, and are continuing to invest, hundreds of millions of dollars in a substantial upgrade of the metropolitan rail network and the Northern Busway. The next stage of this development will involve the proposed electrification of the rail network. A continuing strong focus on improving public transport, along with managing travel demand, will help address congestion and contribute to improving the competitiveness of Auckland as an international hub and world-class city.

International evidence shows that areas of concentrated economic activity can be more productive and therefore generate more economic growth. These ‘agglomeration’ effects can be supported by integrating land-use and transport planning, as well as good urban design and targeted improvements to the road network, public transport, and cycling and walking facilities. To compete internationally as a modern innovation-based economy, Auckland needs the infrastructure to attract business and a lifestyle that retains skilled workers. The benefits of agglomeration need to be considered in developing the Auckland transport system.

SUPPORTING TOURISM AND EXPORT INDUSTRIES

Tourism, one of the nation’s largest industries, relies on the ability of tourists to travel to New Zealand and to move around the country easily. It is important to consider the needs of tourists, and the economic benefits they bring, in identifying critical transport routes and making transport investment decisions. Furthermore, New Zealand trades on its reputation of being ‘clean and green’ in its tourism and export markets. It is in the nation’s economic interests to actively maintain this reputation. For example, being recognised as a global leader in addressing climate change and environmental pollution has the potential to offer economic benefits that help offset the associated costs. As set out in section 4.1, the transport sector will play its part in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and the effects of climate change.

4.4 Assisting safety and personal security

TARGETS TO ASSIST SAFETY AND PERSONAL SECURITY

• Reduce road deaths to no more than 200 per annum by 2040.
• Reduce serious injuries on roads to no more than 1,500 per annum by 2040.

4.4.1 INTRODUCTION

Improving the safety and security of the transport system and its users is central to achieving the transport vision. The government seeks a transport system that will result in fewer deaths, fewer injuries and lower social costs arising from transport-related incidents. It is also important that people are able to travel without fear of death, injury or crime. Similarly, resilience to events such as floods or major accidents is a vital aspect of a well-performing transport system.

4.4.2 STRATEGIC APPROACH

The government will progress initiatives in the following areas to enhance safety and personal security across the transport system:
• safety
• personal security
• transport security
• transport sector resilience.

SAFETY

Transport-related incidents are one of the main causes of accidental loss of life in New Zealand and are a leading cause of death for children aged one to 14 years. The majority of transport-related deaths and injuries occur on roads, and improving road safety has been a major feature of transport policy for many years. Deaths and injuries also occur within the rail, aviation and maritime sectors.

ROAD

In 1973, New Zealand’s road toll was at its highest with 843 deaths. Since then, the number of deaths has roughly halved in absolute terms to 423 in 2007 – a 65 percent reduction on a per capita basis. Although the road toll increased in the early 1980s, since 1987 there has been a general reduction.

 
FIGURE 3: THE NEW ZEALAND ROAD TOLL 1950 TO 2007


Although this reduction has been welcome, as a nation it is important not to be complacent. At 9.9 deaths per 100,000 people, New Zealand’s road toll is higher than countries such as the UK, Sweden and the Netherlands that have rates of fewer than six deaths per 100,000 people. Furthermore, progress has been much slower in the last five years and the road toll in 2007 was higher than that in 2006. This suggests that the rate of reduction in road deaths has declined and may have even levelled out.

The government’s targets to reduce road deaths to no more than 200 per annum, and serious injuries to no more than 1,500 per annum, both by 2040, represent a major improvement on current rates. The targets are equivalent to current world best safety levels and consistent with historic rates of progress in New Zealand (eg the approximate halving of the road toll that has been achieved since 1973). In the stakeholder engagement process there were widely diverging views, with some saying that New Zealand should adopt an aspirational target of zero deaths. Others felt the target should be realistic and achievable, based on the affordability of measures such as engineering improvements, and public acceptability in New Zealand of the tighter regulations and stronger enforcement adopted in the world’s best road-safety countries.

The targeted reduction of the number of road deaths and serious injuries will be advanced through four main work areas: safer roads and roadsides, safer speeds, safer vehicles and safer road users. The balance between these work areas and the specific measures to be used will be set out in a road safety 2020 strategy (which will be published by 2010). This strategy will introduce targets for road deaths and serious injuries for 2020.

RAIL, MARITIME AND AVIATION

On the rail network, there were on average 18 recorded deaths per year between 2000 and 2007. Most rail accidents occur either at level crossings⁵⁴ or as a result of trespass onto operational rail land. A strategic approach to rail safety will be developed in a rail safety 2020 strategy (which will be published in 2009) and is likely to focus on those two areas.

For maritime, safety includes the commercial use of ships for freight, passengers and fishing, and the recreational boating sector. Between 2000 and 2007, there were on average 24 recorded maritime deaths per year (the majority of which occurred within recreational boating). To improve maritime safety, the government will focus on enhancing and enforcing the safety regulatory framework, developing the safety response services and increasing awareness within the maritime sector.

For domestic aviation, there were 12 recorded deaths in 2006, primarily within the ‘general aviation’ sector. This includes the sporting and agricultural use of aircraft, which are higher risk areas. Incidents involving commercial airlines remain rare. Improving aviation safety will focus on the development of aviation safety policy, the certification and licensing of aviation participants, the monitoring of compliance with relevant legislation and rules, and increasing education and promotion.

PERSONAL SECURITY

Personal security relates to crime directed at the individual, particularly when it happens on public transport and while cycling and walking. It is concerned not just with incidents of crime, but also with the fear of crime and the impact this can have in deterring people from using these forms of transport.

Many local authorities have put measures in place to address personal security concerns. Guidance on the design of public spaces to minimise personal security risks has also been published by the Ministry of Justice⁵⁵. In 2008, Land Transport New Zealand commissioned a report on personal security and public transport, and is working through its findings.

Improving personal security on public transport, cycling and walking networks requires partnership action at the local level involving local authorities, transport providers and the police. Specific measures that improve personal security include:

• design of public spaces to prevent crime
• information gathering to determine the number and severity of incidents, and to assess public perceptions of the threat to personal security
• identification of locations where significant numbers of incidents have been reported and those that are perceived to be unsafe
• where cost-effective, installation of surveillance, lighting, the removal of vegtation or other measures to minimise the risk of incidents and the fear of them
• policing to apprehend offenders, deter future offenders and reassure transport users.

TRANSPORT SECURITY

Transport security relates to the protection of the transport system and the safety of its users from acts of terrorism. Its focus has been on aviation and maritime transport. The possibility of terrorism on land-based transport systems is now being considered as well.
Maintaining the security of aviation and maritime transport is vital not just for the safety of users, but also for New Zealand’s economic well-being as a trading nation and major international tourism destination. The terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 focused international attention on the threat of terrorism to air passengers and led to increased aviation security around the world. In August 2006, an alleged terrorist plot to use liquid explosives disguised in water bottles resulted in further changes to aviation security. Although security incidents domestically are very rare, New Zealand cannot be complacent. As a member of the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), New Zealand is obliged to comply with its security standards.

The government’s approach to delivering transport security will be addressed under three main areas

• compliance with international standards
• consistency with international best-practice
• implementation of recent legislative changes.

Amendments to New Zealand’s aviation security laws were passed in September 2007. These amendments gave more power to Aviation Security Officers to detect any security risk and to deal with that risk appropriately. A review of the Civil Aviation Act 1990 is also currently underway, with amendments to the legislation planned for 2010. In 2011, the ICAO will undertake an audit of New Zealand’s aviation security regime. The government will manage this audit and will be responsive to its recommendations for improvements.

For maritime, security has been improved globally since 2001. In 2004, New Zealand passed the Maritime Security Act to enable compliance with the International Ship and Port Security Code.

TRANSPORT SECTOR RESILIENCE

Resilience relates to the transport sector’s ability to respond to emergencies or failures that disrupt or damage transport infrastructure, the speed at which it can recover, and its ability to reduce the impact of such events. It is also concerned with the ability of the sector to anticipate and respond to external changes in the environment, such as technological developments and variations in the global economy.

Possible causes of disruption or damage include:

• natural disasters such as floods, storms, volcanic eruptions or earthquakes
• acts of crime or terrorism
• major transport accidents
• failure in transport infrastructure
• disruption to fuel supplies
• the effects of climate change.

EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

The government’s work in this area has largely been on the ‘four Rs’ of emergency management: reduction, readiness, response and recovery. Significant progress has been made on readiness and response. For example, the Transport Emergency Management Co-ordination Group (known as the Transport Cluster) was established in 2005 to improve the transport sector’s response to national emergencies. The Transport National Emergency Response Plan has also been developed. This sets out operational arrangements to aid the rapid, co-ordinated and effective response of the sector to significant emergencies. Further work is required in the areas of reduction and recovery.

ANTICIPATING AND RESPONDING TO CHANGES
 
As described in Chapter 2, the main drivers of change for transport are external factors that New Zealand has little control over. These uncertainties affect the current and future transport systems. A methodology has been developed to assess the durability of various policy decisions, strategies and plans over the long term. This methodology will be made available to regional councils and Regional Transport Committees to assist in the development of Regional Land Transport Strategies and Programmes.  

4.5 Improving access and mobility

TARGETS TO IMPROVE ACCESS AND MOBILITY

• Increase use of public transport to seven percent of all trips by 2040 (ie from 111 million boardings in 2006/7 to more than 525 million boardings in 2040).
• Increase walking, cycling and other active modes to 30 percent of total trips in urban areas by 2040.

4.5.1 INTRODUCTION

The government seeks improved, reliable access to the facilities and activities that enable all New Zealanders to participate fully in society and the economy. People need to be able to travel with ease and confidence, at home and overseas, and by a form of transport that is appropriate to their needs⁵⁶.

Transport systems help provide people with mobility and accessibility. By contrast, where services are unavailable (for all or part of a journey), inaccessible or unaffordable, full participation in society can be impeded. Barriers can also be physical, for example busy roads or railway lines that need to be crossed. These barriers can reinforce social exclusion and need to be addressed.

Non-transport solutions such as telecommunications can improve access to some services and are important, but will not replace the need for people to be mobile and physically interact with others.

Members of the community who have the lowest levels of accessibility are sometimes referred to as ‘transport disadvantaged’. A range of factors can lead to transport disadvantage, which can be temporary or permanent.

These factors include:

• Urban form designed around the private car – urban areas have developed around widespread ownership and use of the private car. For example, some retail and other facilities are difficult to access without a car. The car, a flexible and relatively cheap mode of transport may therefore indirectly have led to lower levels of accessibility for those without access to one. Congestion in urban areas, a consequence of increased travel demand, can also limit accessibility.
• Lack of modal choice – in recent years there has been significant investment in public transport, cycling and walking. In many locations, however (particularly in rural areas), these modes play only minor roles. Lack of information and fears over personal security may also limit the perceived availability of these modes.
• Affordability – low-income households in urban and rural areas are finding the cost of transport difficult to meet, yet with limited alternative transport options they have to absorb these costs or face restricted accessibility. Sometimes, participation in economic activity hinges on the cost of travelling to and from work relative to earnings. If travel consumes too much of a worker’s resources (money and time), transport can act as a ‘poverty trap’ for poor households and any increases in transport costs will exacerbate this situation.
• Disability – physical, sensory, neurological, psychiatric and intellectual impairment can all lead to disability. The Human Rights Commission’s The Accessible Journey report found that significant numbers of people with disabilities in New Zealand have acute and ongoing difficulties with using land-based passenger transport services: buses, trains, taxis and related services. This is despite the considerable progress that has been made in improving the accessibility of passenger transport. Feedback on the Sustainable Transport discussion paper noted that similar problems occur for some people with disabilities when using aviation services.

Over the long term, New Zealand has to reduce its reliance on car-based mobility if access for all is to be improved in an affordable way. Good urban design principles need to be employed to reduce the need for car-based travel. People need more choice about how they travel, and transport services need to be available, accessible and affordable.

Cost-effective transport solutions may not always be in the form of traditional public transport. For example, community buses, specialised transport for people with disabilities and demand responsive transport⁵⁷ may be more efficient ways of providing mobility. Transport services provided by other agencies can also represent an efficient solution. Examples include district health boards that provide a bus service to ensure that patients are able to get to their appointments on time.

Bringing the services to the users, rather than vice versa, is another option – for example mobile surgical units and libraries in rural areas. This can reduce the need for people to travel or own a private car, although it does not always provide the connectivity required for social wellbeing.

4.5.2 STRATEGIC APPROACH

The following initiatives will be progressed to improve access and mobility for all New Zealanders:

• improving social connectivity by overcoming transport disadvantage and actively planning for accessibility
• improving transport choice by developing an integrated, multi-modal transport system.

IMPROVING SOCIAL CONNECTIVITY
 
Improving social connectivity requires a particular focus on meeting the accessibility needs of the transport disadvantaged. Overcoming the factors that can lead to transport disadvantage will require:

• integrated planning (including accessibility planning) and improved urban design
• improving the availability and accessibility of shared and active modes
• developing the use of less traditional passenger transport such as demand-responsive and community transport
• measures to address transport affordability such as concessionary travel schemes
• measures to improve personal security.

In the development of this Strategy, stakeholders expressed concerns that policies and actions to address other objectives might lead to a decrease in social connectivity. For example, higher vehicle standards to improve safety and reduce emissions may make car ownership more expensive. Where possible, the government will consider measures that will reduce any negative impacts.

IMPROVING TRANSPORT CHOICE

Improving accessibility is also concerned with increasing travel choice. In particular, this involves providing people with the option of using shared and active modes such as public transport, walking and cycling, even when they own a private vehicle. Alternatives such as ridesharing and car clubs also need to be promoted. Integrated planning and other measures that tackle travel demand (such as possible changes to methods of charging and parking management) can help create an environment that encourages greater use of shared and active modes, which in turn will stimulate greater provision.

Key components set out in Chapter 3 that contribute to improving access and mobility are increasing the availability and use of public transport, cycling, walking, and other shared and active modes; integrated planning (including accessibility planning); and considering options for charging. The strategic approach to improving personal security is described in section 4.4.

4.6 Protecting and promoting public health

TARGETS TO PROTECT AND PROMOTE PUBLIC HEALTH

• Reduce the number of people exposed to health-endangering noise levels from transport.
• Reduce the number of people exposed to health-endangering concentrations of air pollution in locations where the impact of transport emissions is significant.
• Increase walking, cycling and other active modes to 30 percent of total trips in urban areas by 2040.
• Reduce road deaths to no more than 200 per annum by 2040.
• Reduce serious injuries on roads to no more than 1,500 per annum by 2040.

4.6.1 INTRODUCTION

Certain forms of transport can positively benefit the health of New Zealanders by providing a convenient way to exercise and making it easier for people to participate in society. However, noise and airborne pollution from transport can adversely affect health. The occupational health of workers in the transport sector is also an important issue.

4.6.2 STRATEGIC APPROACH

The strategic approach of the government towards increasing the contribution transport makes to protecting and promoting public health includes:

• encouraging walking, cycling and other active modes
• increasing participation in society
• reducing adverse noise and vibration
• improving air quality
• improving occupational health within the transport sector.

WALKING AND CYCLING

Walking, cycling and other active modes of transport can contribute to the 30 minutes of exercise a day recommended for adults by health professionals⁵⁸. According to the 2002/3 New Zealand Health Survey, one in three adults is overweight and as many as 3,000 deaths a year may be the result of low physical activity levels. Unfortunately, walking and cycling rates have been declining in recent years.

The government’s approach to improving walking and cycling is described in Chapter 3 (alongside public transport) as a key component.

PARTICIPATION IN SOCIETY

Transport provides access to educational institutions, workplaces, recreational facilities, social networks and public services (including health services), all of which are important determinants of health and wellbeing. Isolation can lead to mental and physical health problems. The focus, in section 4.5 of this Strategy on overcoming transport disadvantage and improving access and mobility, will help people to participate more effectively in society.

NOISE AND VIBRATION

Concern about noise remains one of the most common public objections to new transport infrastructure projects in New Zealand. There are also significant concerns about noise from existing roads, railway lines, ports and aircraft. Noise issues can be exacerbated when new, noise-sensitive development is located in areas that already suffer from significant levels of transport noise (an issue known as ‘reverse sensitivity’). It was estimated in 2005 that 3.2 percent of the population (over 130,000 individuals) was exposed to a level of road noise generally considered by the OECD to be unacceptable. International research shows that stress caused by noise can be a contributing factor to early deaths from heart attacks and other medical conditions.

Vibration from moving vehicles can have similar health effects to those generated by noise. It can also cause physical damage to buildings and other structures, and can affect the operation of vibration-sensitive equipment such as that used in hospitals.

A strategic approach to noise and vibration needs to consider the location and design of transport infrastructure, vehicle standards and driver behaviours, as well as the location, use and design of development near transport corridors. It also needs to consider the contribution that other non-transport sources of noise and vibration may make in a particular locality. Because responsibility for these areas is shared among a wide range of agencies, a partnership approach will be essential.

Noise and vibration issues associated with new transport infrastructure are generally controlled through the RMA, and District Plans may contain noise rules.

The management of airport noise is provided for in the New Zealand Standard NZS 6805:1992 Airport noise management and land-use planning. Similarly, the New Zealand Standard NZS 6809:1999 Port noise management and land-use planning includes provisions for the management of noise arising from sea port operations.

Transit New Zealand’s Environmental Plan describes a well-established approach for managing noise from State highways. A new New Zealand Standard NZS 6806 is expected to be published in 2009 which will contain criteria for the management of noise from new and substantially upgraded roads. The government has recently introduced new rules for tail-pipe noise emissions and is looking to extend these rules in response to public concerns over ‘boy racers’.

The government intends to develop a framework for the management of land transport noise which could form the basis of a more comprehensive transport noise and vibration management strategy. It is intended that the framework will be developed in partnership with relevant agencies, and will consider the role of guidance, voluntary standards, regulations and rules to deliver noise management objectives. One of the first steps in developing this framework will be improving the collection of noise data.

AIR QUALITY

There are well established links between air pollution from vehicles and public health. A four-year study⁵⁹, completed in 2007, estimated that air pollution from motor vehicles contributed to the premature death of 500 people per year in New Zealand and that a further 809 people were suffering serious illnesses attributable to air pollution from motor vehicles. Other research⁶⁰ has indicated that air pollution may have a disproportionately adverse effect on young children, whose growing lungs are particularly susceptible.

Air pollution from transport comes in a number of forms, the most damaging of which are particulates, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds from road vehicles. Ships can also contribute to air pollution by burning fuels with high levels of pollutants in ports that are in, or near, built-up areas. Regional emission inventories throughout New Zealand show that transport is the main source of oxides of nitrogen in all main centres of population, accounting for about 80 to 90 percent of these emissions⁶¹. In terms of the contribution from road vehicles, trends towards cleaner engines with less harmful emissions have been counteracted by increases in traffic volumes and a rise in the proportion of older technology diesel vehicles in the fleet.

The government revised the Vehicle Emissions Rule in 2007 as part of a package of measures aimed at achieving improvements in air quality. The revised rule is intended to reduce the level of harmful emissions produced from motor vehicles entering the New Zealand fleet. Other recent policies have led to a reduction in the sulphur content of diesel and the introduction of the visible smoke test as part of the Warrant of Fitness inspection. In addition, the Ministry for the Environment recently released the Good Practice Guide on Assessing Discharges to Air from Land Transport (see www.mfe.govt.nz)

A strategic approach to air quality management needs to consider the location and design of transport infrastructure, vehicle standards, driver behaviours, and the location, use and design of development near transport corridors. It also needs to consider the contributions that other non-transport sources of air pollution may make in a particular locality. Because responsibility for these areas is shared among a wide range of agencies, a partnership approach will be essential.

Air quality management issues associated with new transport infrastructure are generally controlled through the RMA. Regional policy statements and district plans can also include policies and rules relating to air discharges. The National Environmental Standard for Air Quality prescribes minimum requirements that outdoor air quality should meet, in order to guarantee a set level of protection for human health and the environment.

Addressing air pollution from the maritime sector will focus on effects near centres of population – particularly in ports. Solutions such as shore-side power supplies for ships at berth⁶² could be used to help reduce pollutants from ships.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH WITHIN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR

Working in some parts of the transport sector brings elevated levels of exposure to health risks. These include health issues such as lifting injuries, loss of hearing and exposure to high levels of chemicals like volatile organic compounds in petrol. Occupational health also covers mental health issues, for example the emotional trauma caused to train drivers exposed to suicides or accidental deaths on the rail network. This is an area that requires more research.

Footnotes:

37. Many targets contribute to more than one objective.
38. Relative to 2007 per capita emissions.
39. Based on modelling using the Ministry of Economic Development 2008 'Net Positions' analysis, ie:
    • oil at US$100 a barrel until 2040
    • New Zealand currency dropping to NZ$1=US$0.60 by 2012
    • the Emissions Trading Scheme in place
    • GDP growth as per Treasury long-term forecast ie. 19 percent over 2020-2030 and 18 percent over 2030-2040
40. Working regularly from home whilst using information communication technologies.
41. It is estimated that the typical number of grams of CO₂ per tonne-kilometre of freight carried is: road 123.1, heavy duty road vehicles 92.0, rail 22.8 and coastal shipping 13.9 (European Conference of Ministers of Transport 2006).
42. For biodiesel, it is generally accepted in New Zealand and the European Union that diesel vehicles are already capable of operating on five percent blends. However, the European Union is investigating the possibility of increasing the biodiesel component of diesel to 7 or 10 percent.
43. The NZES has a target that 90 percent of New Zealand's electricity should be from renewable sources by 2025.
44. CO₂-e measures the combined climate changing potential of emissions of multiple greenhouse gases. Emissions of each gas are converted to an amount of CO₂ that would cause the same climate change impact and summed.
45. Based on modelling using the Ministry of Economic Development 2008 'Net Positions' analysis, ie:
    • oil at US$100 a barrel until 2040
    • New Zealand currency dropping to NZ$1=US$0.60 by 2012
    • the Emissions Trading Scheme in place
    • GDP growth as per Treasury long-term forecast ie. 19 percent over 2020-2030 and 18 percent over 2030-2040.
46. The figures in the diagram add up to 59 percent due to rounding.
47. Noise, vibration and air pollution are also environmental effects of transport. These have been covered under 'Protecting and promoting public health', section 4.6
48. Ministerial Advisory Group on Roading Costs, Final Report, August 2006
49. This estimate for all freight growth is based on Treasury long-term forecasts for GDP and makes an assumption that tonne-kilometres will begin to decouple from GDP growth in the 2020 to 2040 period. The predicted annual growth rates in freight are 3 percent to 2020, 2.2 percent to 2030 and 2 percent 2040
50. Provisional figures for 12 months ending February 2008, source: http://www.stats.govt.nz
51. While only a small proportion of international and domestic cargo is carried by air, it accounts for 15 percent of New Zealand's exports by value and is essential for moving time critical products
52. Ernst & Young, 1997
53. Ministry of Transport, Auckland Road Pricing Evaluation Study, 2006
54. Fatalities at level crossings are recorded as both road and rail deaths
55. National Guidelines for Crime Prevention through Environmental Design in New Zealand, 2005 (2 parts)
56. Access for freight is covered in section 4.3 under 'Assisting economic development'
57. Demand responsive transport is a user-oriented form of public transport. It is characterised by flexible routeing and scheduling of small/medium sized vehicles according to passengers' needs. New developments in technology - satellite tracking, on-screen information in call centres and buses, and routeing software - have made it possible to create services which respond more directly to the requirements of the individual passenger
58. Healthy Eating Healthy Action Strategy, Ministry of Health
59. G Fisher et al, Health and Air Pollution in New Zealand, June 2007
60. WHO, Effects of Air Pollution on Children's Health and Development: A Review of the Evidence, 2005
61. Ministry for the Environment, Environment New Zealand, 2007
62. Referred to in the industry as 'cold ironing'

 

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